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Lipan Apache scouts knew so much about living closely with the earth, that sometimes they seemed to vanish before their pursuing enemies. Sadly our modern-day knowledge of how the Lipan Apache lived has almost disappeared as well. By seeking the answers to the following questions, you are helping to preserve that knowledge and pass it along to future generations.

I will tell you the tale of the Lipan Apaches as I have come to know it. My sources are historical accounts, linguistics research and the archeological and ethnographic record. The Lipan were a small group of Eastern Apache bands who in an attempt to preserve their heritage and lives, continuously migrated away from agressive and hostile people. Their history is one of migration that involved being displaced by external pressures like the arrival of the Europeans and in turn, displacing the people who lived on the land they came to occupy. They became skillful warriors themselves and shared a history of warfare with other native groups and Europeans alike. They lived close to nature, hunting for food and skins for clothing. They lived in balance with the environment; they knew exactly which plants to use for food and medicine. Some Lipan groups eventually fled into the remotest canyons and mountains of Mexico, evading capture by both Spaniards and American soldiers by "blending in" with the landscape. Other Lipans were relocated to the Mescalero Reservation in New Mexico in 1903. Perhaps we know so little about the Lipan because they excelled at "blending in" to survive. Except for references to the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apaches, historical records tend to lump all the Apaches living on the Mescalero Reservation after 1903 together. Some accounts have the Lipans who had lived in Texas and helped the Texians with their struggle with their independence from Mexico being relocated to various forts and reservations in the mid 1800's.

Where did the Lipan Apaches come from? First accounts of contact between the ancestors of the Lipan and the Spanish come from Coronado's expedition in 1542 at Pecos Pueblo in eastern New Mexico. The first wave of Apache emigrating through Pecos Pueblo would have been in 1525-26. Their pre-historic, Athapaskan-speaking ancestors migrated from the forests of western Canada into the southern Great Plains.

By the 1600's, the Spaniards enslaved the Apaches they encountered to work ranches and mines. The Apaches retalliated by stealing horses. By the Pueblo revolt of 1680, the Lipan were established by their modern cultural identity as a separate tribe who rode horses: this was the beginning of the "Plains Indians". When the Lipans came to the lands of what is today Texas & Mexico, they were being pushed out of their lands in the north by Commanches. The Lipans also found themselves under pressure from Anglo-American settlers from the north and east and the Mexican-Spaniards to the south. The Lipan Apaches arrived in the Texas Panhandle (Llano Estacado) and the Edwards Plateau by 1680, pushing Caddoan and Algonkian tribes eastward. By 1740, pressure from the Commanches prompted the Lipan migration towards the Rio Grande and towards the missions in Coahuila. The Lipan found themselves with warring Commanches to one side and Spaniards to the other. As the Lipans expanded into Texas, crossing the Balcones Escarpment towards, the Gulf of Mexico, they came into contact with the new Spanish settlements in Texas. The growth of settlements like San Antonio's Villa de Bexar (1730's) encroached upon the Lipans' hunting grounds. The historical record depicts this time as one of unrest and much violence among the Lipan and Spanish missions and settlers. A peace treaty was forged in 1749 with the Franciscans and Lipans. Although hostilities resumed by 1758. Some Lipan chiefs were given protection of missions on the San Saba River and Nueces River in return, they were expected to help defend Spanish lands from Commanches. Basically, the Spaniards' term for peace was conversion of the Lipans to Catholicism. This was not an option for the Lipan chiefs, so by 1765, the Lipan had retreated to the Rio Grande, no longer confident of the protection of the Spanish missions. Relations between the Spanish and Lipans deteriorated after 1767 when the missions closed. The Lipan learned to adapt to many different ecozones throughout their history. In their exodus from their enemies, they often occupied marginal lands that were harsh (rocky, cactus) and arid. Two groups of Lipan emerged: 1.) Southern/ westerngroups- who traveled into Northern Mexico and remained west of the Pecos River in Texas and 2.) The northern/eastern groups - who traveled east as far as the Texas gulf coast. Texas settlers in the early 1800's encountered the second groups most frequently. In fact, because they also considered the Commanches and Mexicans enemies, Lipan warriors helped the Texians fight during the struggle for Texas independence.

How did they live? The Lipans developed survival skills to live in harsh environments as they traveled undetected in the barren desert of Northern Mexico (the states of Chihuahua and Coahuila) and parts of Texas. They transferred their hunting skills to the art of warfare, and were respected as warriors by their enemies. For the most part, you will find that the Lipans’ material culture is similar to the Plains Culture. They adapted to the sort of environment they were living in. For example, they lived in tipis if buffalo or hides were plentiful and the weather cold. Otherwise, they used shelters like wickiups of branches, sticks and leaves. They wore clothing of leather, decorated with beadwork. Leather was used for moccasins as well as for pouches and bags to carry items. They used baskets. They might line baskets with clay to hold water or use wooden bowls. Mostly they would use articles that were easily and quickly transported -that were light and wouldn’t break.

The best account of Lipan life I know of is by Tom Brown, Jr . about his teacher, Grandfather. Grandfather, or Stalking Wolf, was a member of the Southern Lipan group that never lived on a reservation. Stalking Wolf was born around 1880 and was raised by his great grandfather after his parents and grandparents were killed by Mexicans. His band had developed skills of stealth that kept them from being detected by both Mexican and Americans so they could continue to live free in the wilds of the Mexican mountains. We know from historical accounts they would trade with the French, Spanish and other tribes, trading hides, robes, honey, pecans and captives for axes and knives. When social relations disintegrated, the Lipan would kill and steal goods. They would steal guns the Commanche had gotten from the French. Again, this was while their culture was under severe pressures from hostile natives and Europeans. Hunting Skills The Lipan people were expert hunters. They would lay traps and snares, use throwing sticks, bows and arrows and spears. Have you ever tried to hit something by throwing a stick at it? They were very good at hunting small game with throwing sticks. They could hurl a stick with enough accuracy to clobber the animal and stun or kill it.They fished with hooks of bone and wood, spears and nets. They were master craftsmen, making arrowheads, knife blades, axes, awls from flint. Lipan scouts were able to track anything over any sort of ground. Using camouflage of leaves, dirt, mud and ashes, they would blend into the landscape and disguise their scent from animals. This was crucial to their survival in earlier days for hunting purposes. When trouble developed with other tribes and Europeans, tracking and stalking skills easily translated into warfare. For example, to demonstrate their hunting skills, young men would stalk animals like deer, bears and wolves very slowly and quietly to be able to touch them without detection. In this sporting way they practiced their hunting skills. In warfare, this idea of testing your skill on the enemy became “counting coup”. Lipan warriors could approach an enemy very quietly and could steal horses under the very noses of those who guarded them! Taking the life of an animal or plant to eat was considered as necessary to live and the Lipan would express gratitude to that plant or animal’s spirit. The sense that all of creation had spirit, was common to all aspects of life. Plants When the Lipan were exiled to the reservations and sedentary life, they had to be taught how to grow gardens and crops, because they had always relied on foraging for food. They had such an extensive knowledge of wild plants, they could easily find a feast, even in the barren deserts. For example, many cacti are nutritious and tasty. Did you ever eat chopped up green nopalitos in a Mexican food breakfast? That’s the prickly pear (opuntia). You can eat the flat green cactus pad (once you remove the thorns!) and the red fruit is very sweet. The Lipan knew how to burn or scrape off the prickly thorns (don’t try this at home, seriously!). There are so many native plants that grow wild and provide rich meals. We think of them as weeds today. But the Lipan knew how to carefully prepare these plants to provide a delicious meal. Fruits and berries would be eaten as is, while green, leafy plants might be added to a rabbit or deer stew. Do you know any of these wild edible/medicinal plants that the Lipans would have found here in Texas? Mustang Grapes Purple Coneflower Agarita Chickweed Dandelions Dewberries Redbuds CAUTION: Some wild plant parts are poisonous, so *you* should not eat wild plants without adult supervision! Afterall, the Lipans passed their knowledge of plants from generation to generation for many years. Plants provided food and medicine, too. For example, oak bark contains tannic acid which is astringent and antiseptic- or in other words, is an agent that kills germs and cleans wounds. Don’t forget plants were important for making things like cords for stringing bows. Since they didn’t use nails or duct tape to hold things together, they used the fibers from tree bark and plants twisted together to provide strength to lash things together. For example to hold the poles and branches together for making shelters, they might use rope made from the twisted fibers of cedar bark. They also might use leather for lashing or sinew. Warfare Historical accounts of the Lipans from the 1800 and 1900’s depict them as warriors, preoccupied with fighting. By this time, their culture was out of balance and they had developed a culture of war to survive. They used the skills they previously used to hunt against their enemies. Raiding camps was common as they could skillfully steal things without getting caught or loosing lives. Shelter Because they were hunters and gatherers of plants, the Lipan would not live in the same dwelling all year long. Their hunting and gathering of plants required them to move on a seasonal cycle. They would make camps near certain hunting grounds in the summer and near other locations during the colder winter months. Depending on what was available at the time of year, they would live in shelters of animal hides or in simple structures of sticks and debris like leaves or moss. I bet in some hot summer nights, they slept out under the stars! Some areas even had nice cliffs or caves that would provide shelter from rain, cold or enemies. Art work Art or decorations would adorn objects to give them a special look. Quilling or beading was a very fine skill developed to adorn leather pouches, moccasins, rattles, quivers or other special items. When a young girl reached the age of womanhood,it was a very special time for her. These moccasins of soft, brain-tanned buckskin would likely have been worn for a special ceremony like that. Clothing Perhaps the most distinctive clothing item of the Lipan Apache is their footwear. Their moccasins were functional and often works of art. To fend off the sharp spikes of cactus in the arid, marginal lands they occupied, their moccasins had a sort of legging that extended up the shin from the foot. Tanned deer hides would make a lovely soft buckskin, that when wrapped around the leg provided a barrier to keep the brush from piercing the skin. Otherwise, clothing was a very simple affair of buckskins for men and women. Deerskin, when smoked over a fire, becomes water resistant. As you can imagine, in summer clothing was at a bare minimum. Children and adults would go barefoot. In the cooler temperatures, clothing made from thicker hides and furs would be prized.   World View or Philosophy Tom Brown Jr. gives us the opportunity to see the Lipan world “through Grandfather’s eyes”. We learn that the Lipan people were deeply spiritual and regarded the natural world with great respect. The Lipan lived in a sacred manner. All aspects of life were revered because they were seen as gifts from the Creator, Yusn (Great Mystery). All of the Creator’s creations: plants, animals, earth mother, rocks, water were honored in rituals or prayer. Balance in the spiritual realm was very important, especially when hunting for food or waging war, so attention to the spirit world was critical. Purification was achieved through sweat lodges, prayer and sacred ritual. Failure to maintain the balance, the harmony with the natural world would result in disaster, sickness or even death. Shamans were the religious leaders who offered guidance through prophecies and healing to the people. Even the acts of making shelter or bows and arrows, or starting a fire were done in a sacred manner. Fire was seen as a gift of the Creator. Daily activities of trapping and hunting or collecting plants for food were seen as ways of honoring the Creator.

Where did they go? By the end of the 19th century, the way of life that had supported the Lipan Apache for hundreds of years came to an end. Encroachment on their territory by Spaniards, Mexicans, white settlers and Commanches resulted in turmoil for these, as well as for other native peoples. By 1903, the remaining Lipans were relocated to the Mescalero Reservation in New Mexico. After this time, historical records tend to lump all the Apaches living on the Mescalero Reservation together, except for references to the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apaches. Some others of the Lipan bands ended up on the reservation in Oklahoma. As mentioned above, a few Lipan who remained in the wilderness of Mexico were able to escape reservation life. Those few Lipan who survived and who did move to reservations likely intermarried with other Apache and members of other native groups or with members of the white community. The term, assimilation,applies to the process of a minority culture adopting to the ways of mainstream culture. Internet resources Cuelgas de Castro was a Lipan chief who fought with the Texians against Commanches and Mexican forces. Castro's descendants have provided information at this site. Map Reference to Chief Magoosh from Eve Ball's work, Indeh. More resources

Since 2-1-2005